How did medieval towns and their guilds win the right to rule themselves?

By banding together. Medieval townspeople formed communes, sworn alliances of mutual defence for the citizens of a town, and they bought or won charters that guaranteed basics such as the right to hold a market. Inside the walls, craftsmen and merchants formed guilds, whose key privilege was control of trade in the city. Together, communes and guilds let towns run much of their own business.

Why gather behind walls at all? In the 10th century, as three-field farming raised productivity, peasants began to gravitate to walled population centres. Townspeople wanted protection from lawless nobles and bandits, but also liberty: the freedom to regulate their own affairs and security from arbitrary taxation by the local bishop, abbot or count. Winning that freedom was a long struggle. Charters were often bought at high prices, or granted by a king or emperor who hoped to enlist towns as allies.

Not everyone was pleased. Medieval society was supposed to have three orders, those who fight, pray and work, and towns did not fit. Nobles and clergy sometimes accepted communes and sometimes did not: the commune of Laon was suppressed in 1112, which led to a defiant revolt.

Guilds organised the work inside. They might set prices, hours of trading and numbers of apprentices. Critics said this reduced free competition, while defenders said it protected standards. Craft guilds passed on skills through apprenticeship, journeymanship and mastery, and they also looked after the sick, widows and orphans.